Terms such as domestic violence, arguments or marital dispute appear in police resolutions, court decisions, expert reports, and the media. They often describe violence that women experience from their current or former partners or husbands. Intimate partner violence against women has specific characteristics that need to be understood in order to effectively protect women and children who are exposed to it.
Violence against women as a violation of human rights
According to the UN definition, violence against women is a violation of their human rights and a form of discrimination. Intimate partner violence against women is among its most common forms, along with sexual violence, rape, trafficking of women, and forced prostitution.
These are specific forms of violence that women experience disproportionately more often than other groups—precisely because they are women. Its roots lie in the historically unequal distribution of power between men and women. The aspect of power and control is what distinguishes intimate partner violence against women from the broader concept of domestic violence.
What domestic violence includes
The 2024 Directive of the European Parliament and the Council of the EU on combating violence against women and domestic violence defines domestic violence as all acts of physical, sexual, psychological, or economic violence that occur within a family or household, regardless of biological or legal family ties, or between former or current spouses or partners, regardless of whether the perpetrator has or had shared housing with the victim.
Domestic violence is therefore a broader category encompassing multiple types of relationships, but the largest share is intimate partner violence against women.
Data from research
According to the Europe-wide representative survey on Gender-Based Violence against Women (Eurostat, 2023), conducted in Slovakia on a sample of 5,000 women:
Psychological violence from a partner was experienced by 48.2% of Slovak women during their lifetime, most commonly in the form of humiliation and belittlement.
Physical violence or threats were experienced by 28% of Slovak women, with the most common forms being throwing objects, slapping, or hair-pulling.
Experiences of threats, physical, or sexual violence by current partner were reported by 11.7% of women.
One in three women suffered physical harm, and 11% of Slovak women felt their lives were at risk due to violence.
POWER AND CONTROL
The core of intimate partner violence against women
A defining feature of intimate partner violence against women is the man’s attempt to exercise power and control over the woman and children. This power is enforced through various forms of behaviour that repeat in what is known as the cycle of violence.
Abusive men use a combination of multiple forms of violence—physical, psychological, economic, or sexualised. Many of these are invisible: intimidation, threats, humiliation, constant criticism, control of finances, isolation from family, prohibition to work, or restriction of access to healthcare. Some abusive partners never use physical violence, making it harder for women to provide evidence.
Patterns of abusive behaviour
Abusive men apply their behaviour consciously and over a long period. Typical patterns include: : possessiveness and controlling behaviour, isolation of the woman from her environment, maintaining fear through threats, intimidation, or physical attacks, humiliation and insults, control of daily activities and financial dependency.
Through these behaviours, the man systematically exerts pressure on the woman and keeps her in fear. Violence alternates with periods of calm and occasional displays of affection, which repeatedly bind the woman to him. This cycle of violence is confusing for women because they experience both violent, controlling behaviour and periods when the partner does not behave violently. As a result, women may defend or minimise the partner’s behaviour.
Violence against women is in most cases learned, conscious, and controlled behaviour, aimed at total power and control over the woman—over her thoughts, emotions, behaviour, and body.
Dynamics of violence and risks in abusive relationships
Intimate partner violence against women occurs in cyclical phases, with a typical dynamic. Gradually, its intensity and frequency increase, while the “calm” periods shorten.
In cases of frequent or extreme violence, rapid and effective intervention is necessary to prevent serious consequences, including the murder of the woman and/or children.
If an abusive man begins to lose power over his partner—for example, after she leaves, seeks help, or the police intervene—violence may escalate. Therefore, it is essential that professionals in institutions consider the specifics of intimate partner violence, assess risks, and work with the woman to create a safety plan for her and her children.
Activities of Fenestra Counselling and Intervention Centre in 2025 are supported by the Ministry of Justice of the Slovak Republic through the grant program for providing professional assistance to victims of crime, the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Family of the Slovak Republic within the grant for promoting gender equality and equal opportunities, and the Košice Self-Governing Region.
Fenestra bears sole responsibility for the content of this article.
